Different models of learning to enhance critical thinking, promote learning, encourage self-esteem and the creation of dialog to improve team interpersonal relationships has been the focal point of these past two weeks with the approaches taken from a foundation of Constructivism and Cognitive Theory.
Model One:
Case-Based Learning and Case-Based Reasoning Methodology is a model similar to “problem based learning” as noted by the Center for Instructional Development and Distance Education, retrieved 19:35, 11 October 2007 (MEST), which states “Cases are factually-based, complex problems written to stimulate classroom discussion and collaborative analysis. Case teaching involves an interactive, student-centered exploration of realistic and specific situations. As students consider problems from a perspective which requires analysis, they strive to resolve questions that have no single right answer.”
In the Case-Based Learning (CBL) and Reasoning …
- students sort out factual data, apply analytic tools, articulate issues, reflect on their relevant experiences, and draw conclusions they can relate to new situations.
- they acquire substantive knowledge and develop analytic, collaborative, and communication skills.
- cases add meaning by providing students with the opportunity to see theory in practice.
- students seem more engaged, interested, and involved in the class.
- CBL develops students' skills in group learning, speaking, and critical thinking.
- since many cases are based on contemporary or realistic problems, the use of cases in the classroom makes subject matter more relevant.
The process of problem solving new issues or concerns based a foundation of previously solved similar problems is Case-based reasoning. This problem solving methodology is an effective strategy for small group working collectively as a unit. It enhances both individual and group learning. As the members of the group work cooperatively the following is also manifested:
§ transferred/shared knowledge
§ increased opportunities for interactions
§ positive and negative social interdependence (i.e. negative aspects may be increased competitiveness that leads to division instead of unity)
According to Kerr and Bruun “Jigsaw” is a strategy that can be utilized to increase individual participation and involvement in group dynamics, thus, minimizing or eliminating the issue of isolated and marginally involved participants. Case-based reasoning is “student to student” learning and incorporates the following four-step process:
- Retrieve: Utilizing relevant memories to solve a target problem. Each case consists of a problem, its solution, and annotations regarding how the solution was obtained. For example, if the problem was how to prepare banana pancakes, and one has made plain pancakes in the past a conclusion may be drawn that the procedure utilized to make plain pancakes maybe used again with the addition of sliced or mashed bananas. These decisions that are made, in the process of making this new dish, incorporates the ability to retrieve a case or past memory.
- Reuse: Adapting or mapping a solution for the new target problem based on a previous case situation. An example would be adapting or modifying the previous procedure utilized to make plain pancakes to now incorporates bananas.
- Revise: Testing the newly adapted solution in the real world or through simulation and then revising the solution as necessary in order to achieve the desired outcome. For example, if by adding bananas to the batter the resulting pancakes were heavy or dense, to then instead add the bananas as a topping for the pancakes after there were put on a plate.
- Retain: Once the desired solution is actualized, storing or committing the information to memory for future use, thereby creating a new case footprint or memory. Perhaps writing down the new solution on a recipe card or sharing it with others, as well as, becoming more prepared to make other pancake variations (i.e. blueberry or strawberry pancakes, etc.)
Model Two:
Cognitive Flexibility Theory focuses on learning complex and less-structured areas. Spiro and Jehng (1990, p. 165) state “By cognitive flexibility, we mean the ability to spontaneously restructure one’s knowledge, in many ways, in adaptive responses to radically changing situational demands … this is a function of both the way knowledge is represented (e.g., along multiple rather single conceptual dimensions) and the processes that operate on those mental representations (e.g., processes of schema assembly rather than intact schema retrieval).”
This theory centers on transferred knowledge and the skills that develop after the initial learning situation. The emphasis is on presenting the information from a variety of perspectives, multiple examples and an assortment of case studies. Context-dependent learning with specific instruction allows for more effective, realistic and relevant learning. Students are given opportunities to develop their own demonstrations and representations of information and constructed knowledge, for successful learning experiences.
Cognitive flexibility supports the use of interactive technology and experiences (e.g., videodisc, hypertext, etc.). It can be applied to literary comprehension, history, biology and medicine. It also has four major principles …
- Multiple representations of the content must be inherent to the learning activities and experiences.
- Instructional materials must support context-dependent knowledge and avoid content oversimplification.
- Case-based emphasis on knowledge construction and not information transmission is the focal point of instruction.
- The knowledge sources are highly interconnected instead of compartmentalized.
It is in this learning environment that multiple content based perspectives are presented in a constructional, contextual format instead of a complex and less-structured one. The “Plantation Letter” is an example of the Cognitive Flexibility theory.
Model Three:
The “Learning Object” is “collection of content, practice, and assessment items that are combined based on a single learning objective.” Wayne Hogins is accredited with the development of this model though his 1994 group work that utilized Gerard’s 1967 concept regarding learning. Learning objects are also known as the following: content objects, chunks, educational objects, information objects, intelligent objects, knowledge bits, knowledge objects, learning components, media objects, reusable curriculum components, nuggets, reusable learning objects, testable reusable units of cognition, training components and units of learning. They all offer the learning process a new concept to replace the older more traditional approach of “several hours chunked” information. These new modalities provide “smaller, self-contained, and reusable units of learning.” They incorporate a number of different components or segments with span from descriptive data to information regarding rights and educational levels. The core of this model is content, practice and assessment, which is a key issue in the utilization of metadata. However, the design of this model also raises questions regarding portability particularly when extrapolated to a broader “learning management system.”
Learning objects include the following key characteristics:
- A new way of presenting content learning in much smaller units than usual; mini-segments which range from 2 to 15 minutes in length, as opposed to the traditionally presented content learning approach of “several hours chunked.”
- Each learning object is self-contained and can be presented independently.
- A single object or nugget may be utilized in a variety of contexts, serve diverse purposes, and are reusable.
- They are comprehensive and can be grouped into larger collections of content inclusive of more traditional course structures.
- Each object provides descriptive information allowing for easy research; each are tagged with metadata.
Although this model is not as formal as the prior two theories, it is a means of learning practiced in the educational community. Lave and Wenger (1991), states that “at its simplest, situated learning is education that takes place in the same context in which is it applied.” An example of this would be field trips, workshops, classrooms, trainings, apprenticeships and various practices which are realistically and situationally based experiential opportunities. We strengthen learning by what we practice, reinforce, actively participate, shape and model along with repetition, which allows the learning experience the prospect of moving from short term to long term memory banks (Davidson-Shivers and Rasmussen, 2006).
